To learn more about the map elements, please download the "Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees"
This distribution map has been developed by the European Commission Joint Research Centre (partly based on the EUFORGEN map) and released under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0)
Caudullo, G., Welk, E., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., 2017. Chorological maps for the main European woody species. Data in Brief 12, 662-666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.05.007
The following experts have contributed to the development of the EUFORGEN distribution maps:
Fazia Krouchi (Algeria), Hasmik Ghalachyan (Armenia), Thomas Geburek (Austria), Berthold Heinze (Austria), Rudi Litschauer (Austria), Rudolf Litschauer (Austria), Michael Mengl (Austria), Ferdinand Müller (Austria), Franz Starlinger (Austria), Valida Ali-zade (Azerbaijan), Vahid Djalal Hajiyev (Azerbaijan), Karen Cox (Belgium), Bart De Cuyper (Belgium), Olivier Desteucq (Belgium), Patrick Mertens (Belgium), Jos Van Slycken (Belgium), An Vanden Broeck (Belgium), Kristine Vander Mijnsbrugge (Belgium), Dalibor Ballian (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Alexander H. Alexandrov (Bulgaria), Alexander Delkov (Bulgaria), Ivanova Denitsa Pandeva (Bulgaria), Peter Zhelev Stoyanov (Bulgaria), Joso Gracan (Croatia), Marilena Idzojtic (Croatia), Mladen Ivankovic (Croatia), Željka Ivanović (Croatia), Davorin Kajba (Croatia), Hrvoje Marjanovic (Croatia), Sanja Peric (Croatia), Andreas Christou (Cyprus), Xenophon Hadjikyriacou (Cyprus), Václav Buriánek (Czech Republic), Jan Chládek (Czech Republic), Josef Frýdl (Czech Republic), Petr Novotný (Czech Republic), Martin Slovacek (Czech Republic), Zdenek Špišek (Czech Republic), Karel Vancura (Czech Republic), Ulrik Bräuner (Denmark), Bjerne Ditlevsen (Denmark), Jon Kehlet Hansen (Denmark), Jan Svejgaard Jensen (Denmark), Kalev Jðgiste (Estonia), Tiit Maaten (Estonia), Raul Pihu (Estonia), Ülo Tamm (Estonia), Arvo Tullus (Estonia), Aivo Vares (Estonia), Teijo Nikkanen (Finland), Sanna Paanukoski (Finland), Mari Rusanen (Finland), Pekka Vakkari (Finland), Leena Yrjänä (Finland), Daniel Cambon (France), Eric Collin (France), Alexis Ducousso (France), Bruno Fady (France), François Lefèvre (France), Brigitte Musch (France), Sylvie Oddou-Muratorio (France), Luc E. Pâques (France), Julien Saudubray (France), Marc Villar (France), Vlatko Andonovski (FYR Macedonia), Dragi Pop-Stojanov (FYR Macedonia), Merab Machavariani (Georgia), Irina Tvauri (Georgia), Alexander Urushadze (Georgia), Bernd Degen (Germany), Jochen Kleinschmit (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Volker Schneck (Germany), Richard Stephan (Germany), H. H. Kausch-Blecken Von Schmeling (Germany), Georg von Wühlisch (Germany), Iris Wagner (Germany), Heino Wolf (Germany), Paraskevi Alizoti (Greece), Filippos Aravanopoulos (Greece), Andreas Drouzas (Greece), Despina Paitaridou (Greece), Aristotelis C. Papageorgiou (Greece), Kostas Thanos (Greece), Sándor Bordács (Hungary), Csaba Mátyás (Hungary), László Nagy (Hungary), Thröstur Eysteinsson (Iceland), Adalsteinn Sigurgeirsson (Iceland), Halldór Sverrisson (Iceland), John Fennessy (Ireland), Ellen O'Connor (Ireland), Fulvio Ducci (Italy), Silvia Fineschi (Italy), Bartolomeo Schirone (Italy), Marco Cosimo Simeone (Italy), Giovanni Giuseppe Vendramin (Italy), Lorenzo Vietto (Italy), Janis Birgelis (Latvia), Virgilijus Baliuckas (Lithuania), Kestutis Cesnavicius (Lithuania), Darius Danusevicius (Lithuania), Valmantas Kundrotas (Lithuania), Alfas Pliûra (Lithuania), Darius Raudonius (Lithuania), Robert du Fays (Luxembourg), Myriam Heuertz (Luxembourg), Claude Parini (Luxembourg), Fred Trossen (Luxembourg), Frank Wolter (Luxembourg), Joseph Buhagiar (Malta), Eman Calleja (Malta), Ion Palancean (Moldova), Dragos Postolache (Moldova), Gheorghe Postolache (Moldova), Hassan Sbay (Morocco), Tor Myking (Norway), Tore Skrøppa (Norway), Anna Gugala (Poland), Jan Kowalczyk (Poland), Czeslaw Koziol (Poland), Jan Matras (Poland), Zbigniew Sobierajski (Poland), Maria Helena Almeida (Portugal), Filipe Costa e Silva (Portugal), Luís Reis (Portugal), Maria Carolina Varela (Portugal), Ioan Blada (Romania), Alexandru-Lucian Curtu (Romania), Lucian Dinca (Romania), Georgeta Mihai (Romania), Mihai Olaru (Romania), Gheorghe Parnuta (Romania), Natalia Demidova (Russian Federation), Mikhail V. Pridnya (Russian Federation), Andrey Prokazin (Russian Federation), Srdjan Bojovic (Serbia) , Vasilije Isajev (Serbia), Saša Orlovic (Serbia), Rudolf Bruchánik (Slovakia), Roman Longauer (Slovakia), Ladislav Paule (Slovakia), Gregor Bozič (Slovenia), Robert Brus (Slovenia), Katarina Celič (Slovenia), Hojka Kraigher (Slovenia), Andrej Verlič (Slovenia), Marjana Westergren (Slovenia), Ricardo Alía (Spain), Josefa Fernández-López (Spain), Luis Gil Sanchez (Spain), Pablo Gonzalez Goicoechea (Spain), Santiago C. González-Martínez (Spain), Sonia Martin Albertos (Spain), Eduardo Notivol Paino (Spain), María Arantxa Prada (Spain), Alvaro Soto de Viana (Spain), Lennart Ackzell (Sweden), Jonas Bergquist (Sweden), Sanna Black-Samuelsson (Sweden), Jonas Cedergren (Sweden), Gösta Eriksson (Sweden), Markus Bolliger (Switzerland), Felix Gugerli (Switzerland), Rolf Holderegger (Switzerland), Peter Rotach (Switzerland), Marcus Ulber (Switzerland), Sven M.G. de Vries (The Netherlands), Khouja Mohamed Larbi (Tunisia), Murat Alan (Turkey), Gaye Kandemir (Turkey), Gursel Karagöz (Turkey), Zeki Kaya (Turkey), Hasan Özer (Turkey), Hacer Semerci (Turkey), Ferit Toplu (Turkey), Mykola M. Vedmid (Ukraine), Roman T. Volosyanchuk (Ukraine), Stuart A'Hara (United Kingdom), Joan Cottrell (United Kingdom), Colin Edwards (United Kingdom), Michael Frankis (United Kingdom), Jason Hubert (United Kingdom), Karen Russell (United Kingdom), C.J.A. Samuel (United Kingdom).
Status of Ilex aquifolium conservation in Europe
European holly is dioecious, with an outcrossing mating system. However, it can resprout asexually not only from the stem but also from the root systems, up to 10 m away from the original tree, which influences its genetic diversity and distribution (Vega et al., 2022). This species possesses a moderate level of genetic diversity, which varies regionally across its distribution in Europe and North Africa, with populations in Spain showing particularly high genetic diversity (Vega et al., 2022). The species shows low levels of inbreeding but the high amount of vegetative regeneration and propagation from cuttings by humans means there are many clones in European holly populations, which may also indicate limited gene dispersal (Vega et al., 2022).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
European holly has been exploited since the neolithic for wood and food for livestock because it can be easily reproduced vegetatively; it currently has high ornamental and commercial value (Tsaktsira et al., 2018). Many current populations in Spain are related to past human management for livestock; populations in northern Spain have been more actively managed, resulting in a larger number of cloned individuals from vegetative propagation (Vega et al., 2022). Abandonment of European holly in rural landscapes in Spain has likely resulted in an increase of the species’ genetic diversity as natural regeneration is now more common (Vega et al., 2022).
There is a wide range of cultivars of European holly which can be easily cloned and selected phenotypes with economic value are widely propagated using cuttings (Tsaktsira et al., 2018). However, cultivated varieties being released into wild populations of European holly can result in generation of hybrids with native varieties or replacement of native genotypes (Skou, Toneatto, and Kollmann, 2012). Often cultivars can end up representing a large part of what was thought to be a native species (Skou, Toneatto, and Kollmann, 2012).
In Denmark, many cultivars of European holly have been used as ornamentals in gardens and parks (Skou, Toneatto, and Kollmann, 2012). Cultivars in Denmark were found to have higher heterozygosity than wild populations, possibly indicating hybridization between different groups and introgression of ornamental genotypes into wild populations (Skou, Toneatto, and Kollmann, 2012). This has caused wild populations to become homogenized, making the identification of native genotypes difficult; there is now little differentiation between wild and ornamental European holly populations in the country (Skou, Toneatto, and Kollmann, 2012). Many of the ornamental varieties are more frost resistant than native genetypes, meaning populations of European holly at the expanding edge of the species range in Denmark are made up of escaped cultivars not native plants (Skou, Toneatto, and Kollmann, 2012).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
European holly has ecological and cultural significance making conservation efforts to preserve its genetic diversity essential. Threats to the species include habitat fragmentation, climate change, and homogenization from domesticated cultivars. Additionally, over-exploitation for Christmas decorations can lead to reduced population sizes. Climate change is increasing winter temperatures in the tree’s northern range and drought in its southern range, threatening the species’ current distribution in Europe (Vega et al., 2022). The species is also vulnerable to habitat changes as population isolation threatens the species’ genetic diversity (Vega et al., 2022). However, there is a lack of genetic studies in Europe; addressing this should be a priority.
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Genetic Characterisation of Ilex aquifolium and its GCUs
Availability of FRM
FOREMATIS
Contacts of experts
NA
Further reading
NA
References
Skou, A.M.T., Toneatto, F., and Kollmann, J. 2012. Are plant populations in expanding ranges made up of escaped cultivars? The case of Ilex aquifolium in Denmark. Plant Ecology, 213: 1131–1144.
Tsaktsira, M., Alevropoulos, A., Tsoulpha, P., Scaltsoyiannes, V., Scaltsoyiannes, A., and Iliev, I. 2018. Inter-and intra-genetic variation on rooting ability of Ilex aquifolium L. varieties and cultivars. Propagation of Ornamental Plants, 18(4): 131–138.
Vega, C., Fernández, V., Gil, L., and Valbuena-Carabaña, M. 2022. Clonal diversity and fine-scale genetic structure of a keystone species: Ilex aquifolium. Forests, 13(9): 1431. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13091431
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