To learn more about the map elements, please download the "Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees"
This distribution map has been developed by the European Commission Joint Research Centre (partly based on the EUFORGEN map) and released under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0)
Caudullo, G., Welk, E., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., 2017. Chorological maps for the main European woody species. Data in Brief 12, 662-666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.05.007
The following experts have contributed to the development of the EUFORGEN distribution maps:
Fazia Krouchi (Algeria), Hasmik Ghalachyan (Armenia), Thomas Geburek (Austria), Berthold Heinze (Austria), Rudi Litschauer (Austria), Rudolf Litschauer (Austria), Michael Mengl (Austria), Ferdinand Müller (Austria), Franz Starlinger (Austria), Valida Ali-zade (Azerbaijan), Vahid Djalal Hajiyev (Azerbaijan), Karen Cox (Belgium), Bart De Cuyper (Belgium), Olivier Desteucq (Belgium), Patrick Mertens (Belgium), Jos Van Slycken (Belgium), An Vanden Broeck (Belgium), Kristine Vander Mijnsbrugge (Belgium), Dalibor Ballian (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Alexander H. Alexandrov (Bulgaria), Alexander Delkov (Bulgaria), Ivanova Denitsa Pandeva (Bulgaria), Peter Zhelev Stoyanov (Bulgaria), Joso Gracan (Croatia), Marilena Idzojtic (Croatia), Mladen Ivankovic (Croatia), Željka Ivanović (Croatia), Davorin Kajba (Croatia), Hrvoje Marjanovic (Croatia), Sanja Peric (Croatia), Andreas Christou (Cyprus), Xenophon Hadjikyriacou (Cyprus), Václav Buriánek (Czech Republic), Jan Chládek (Czech Republic), Josef Frýdl (Czech Republic), Petr Novotný (Czech Republic), Martin Slovacek (Czech Republic), Zdenek Špišek (Czech Republic), Karel Vancura (Czech Republic), Ulrik Bräuner (Denmark), Bjerne Ditlevsen (Denmark), Jon Kehlet Hansen (Denmark), Jan Svejgaard Jensen (Denmark), Kalev Jðgiste (Estonia), Tiit Maaten (Estonia), Raul Pihu (Estonia), Ülo Tamm (Estonia), Arvo Tullus (Estonia), Aivo Vares (Estonia), Teijo Nikkanen (Finland), Sanna Paanukoski (Finland), Mari Rusanen (Finland), Pekka Vakkari (Finland), Leena Yrjänä (Finland), Daniel Cambon (France), Eric Collin (France), Alexis Ducousso (France), Bruno Fady (France), François Lefèvre (France), Brigitte Musch (France), Sylvie Oddou-Muratorio (France), Luc E. Pâques (France), Julien Saudubray (France), Marc Villar (France), Vlatko Andonovski (FYR Macedonia), Dragi Pop-Stojanov (FYR Macedonia), Merab Machavariani (Georgia), Irina Tvauri (Georgia), Alexander Urushadze (Georgia), Bernd Degen (Germany), Jochen Kleinschmit (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Volker Schneck (Germany), Richard Stephan (Germany), H. H. Kausch-Blecken Von Schmeling (Germany), Georg von Wühlisch (Germany), Iris Wagner (Germany), Heino Wolf (Germany), Paraskevi Alizoti (Greece), Filippos Aravanopoulos (Greece), Andreas Drouzas (Greece), Despina Paitaridou (Greece), Aristotelis C. Papageorgiou (Greece), Kostas Thanos (Greece), Sándor Bordács (Hungary), Csaba Mátyás (Hungary), László Nagy (Hungary), Thröstur Eysteinsson (Iceland), Adalsteinn Sigurgeirsson (Iceland), Halldór Sverrisson (Iceland), John Fennessy (Ireland), Ellen O'Connor (Ireland), Fulvio Ducci (Italy), Silvia Fineschi (Italy), Bartolomeo Schirone (Italy), Marco Cosimo Simeone (Italy), Giovanni Giuseppe Vendramin (Italy), Lorenzo Vietto (Italy), Janis Birgelis (Latvia), Virgilijus Baliuckas (Lithuania), Kestutis Cesnavicius (Lithuania), Darius Danusevicius (Lithuania), Valmantas Kundrotas (Lithuania), Alfas Pliûra (Lithuania), Darius Raudonius (Lithuania), Robert du Fays (Luxembourg), Myriam Heuertz (Luxembourg), Claude Parini (Luxembourg), Fred Trossen (Luxembourg), Frank Wolter (Luxembourg), Joseph Buhagiar (Malta), Eman Calleja (Malta), Ion Palancean (Moldova), Dragos Postolache (Moldova), Gheorghe Postolache (Moldova), Hassan Sbay (Morocco), Tor Myking (Norway), Tore Skrøppa (Norway), Anna Gugala (Poland), Jan Kowalczyk (Poland), Czeslaw Koziol (Poland), Jan Matras (Poland), Zbigniew Sobierajski (Poland), Maria Helena Almeida (Portugal), Filipe Costa e Silva (Portugal), Luís Reis (Portugal), Maria Carolina Varela (Portugal), Ioan Blada (Romania), Alexandru-Lucian Curtu (Romania), Lucian Dinca (Romania), Georgeta Mihai (Romania), Mihai Olaru (Romania), Gheorghe Parnuta (Romania), Natalia Demidova (Russian Federation), Mikhail V. Pridnya (Russian Federation), Andrey Prokazin (Russian Federation), Srdjan Bojovic (Serbia) , Vasilije Isajev (Serbia), Saša Orlovic (Serbia), Rudolf Bruchánik (Slovakia), Roman Longauer (Slovakia), Ladislav Paule (Slovakia), Gregor Bozič (Slovenia), Robert Brus (Slovenia), Katarina Celič (Slovenia), Hojka Kraigher (Slovenia), Andrej Verlič (Slovenia), Marjana Westergren (Slovenia), Ricardo Alía (Spain), Josefa Fernández-López (Spain), Luis Gil Sanchez (Spain), Pablo Gonzalez Goicoechea (Spain), Santiago C. González-Martínez (Spain), Sonia Martin Albertos (Spain), Eduardo Notivol Paino (Spain), María Arantxa Prada (Spain), Alvaro Soto de Viana (Spain), Lennart Ackzell (Sweden), Jonas Bergquist (Sweden), Sanna Black-Samuelsson (Sweden), Jonas Cedergren (Sweden), Gösta Eriksson (Sweden), Markus Bolliger (Switzerland), Felix Gugerli (Switzerland), Rolf Holderegger (Switzerland), Peter Rotach (Switzerland), Marcus Ulber (Switzerland), Sven M.G. de Vries (The Netherlands), Khouja Mohamed Larbi (Tunisia), Murat Alan (Turkey), Gaye Kandemir (Turkey), Gursel Karagöz (Turkey), Zeki Kaya (Turkey), Hasan Özer (Turkey), Hacer Semerci (Turkey), Ferit Toplu (Turkey), Mykola M. Vedmid (Ukraine), Roman T. Volosyanchuk (Ukraine), Stuart A'Hara (United Kingdom), Joan Cottrell (United Kingdom), Colin Edwards (United Kingdom), Michael Frankis (United Kingdom), Jason Hubert (United Kingdom), Karen Russell (United Kingdom), C.J.A. Samuel (United Kingdom).
Status of Abies alba conservation in Europe
Silver fir has moderate to high genetic diversity, with greater diversity within populations than between them. High genetic diversity has identified in Czech and Italian populations (Cvrčková, Máchová and Malá, 2015; Belletti et al., 2017). Refugial populations of silver fir in the Alps and Balkans may be reservoirs of high genetic diversity (Belletti et al., 2017). Silver fir populations show evidence of recent population bottlenecks. Genetic diversity is lowest at the extremes of the species’ distribution to the east and west, probably because of genetic drift, human activities causing fragmentation and isolation, and reduced population sizes in marginal populations (Belletti et al., 2017). However, high genetic diversity is seen across the species’ range, likely still reflecting the diversity of glacial refugial populations (Cvrčková, Máchová and Malá, 2015; Major et al., 2021). Silver fir has comparatively high genetic diversity between populations compared with other tree species (Belletti et al., 2017; Major et al., 2021).
Genetic diversity of silver fir is distributed unevenly across its range and is related to geographic distance, with higher variability in southeastern Europe (Wolf, 2003). Genetic studies have revealed distinct genetic clusters corresponding to geographical regions and decreasing genetic diversity with increasing distance from glacial refugia sites, consistent with the postglacial colonization history of the species (Wolf, 2003). This indicates limited gene flow across large distances, leading to regional differentiation.
Conifer populations are typically associated with rather low levels of genetic differentiation, thanks to their allogamous mating system and efficient pollen and seed dispersal, but differentiation in silver fir is comparatively high (Wolf, 2003; Belletti et al., 2017). Silver fir has moderate and significant fine-scale spatial genetic structuring across its range, with elevation being the most important driver of spatial genetic structure (Major et al., 2021). This could be because its heavy seeds and pollen grains limit seed and pollen dispersal, or that higher elevations were more recently colonized (Major et al., 2021). However, these populations did not show differing levels of genetic diversity. Italy has many differentiated populations because of the large number of barriers to gene flow, such as mountains and refugial populations that were previously isolated (Belletti et al., 2017).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Sources of recolonization for silver fir since the last glacial maximum are in the southern Balkans, north-western Balkans, and Apennines (Cvrčková, Máchová and Malá, 2015; Belletti et al., 2017). Smaller refugia are found in the Pyrenees, central/eastern France, and southern/central Italy, and introgression occurred in the contact zones of different refugial populations (Wolf, 2003). However, silver fir may not have expanded from the Pyrenees and southern Italy, likely remaining in its refugia in those areas (Belletti et al., 2017; Major et al., 2021).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Silver fir is not threatened but has experienced catastrophic reductions in population size and distribution during the last 200 years. This was caused by deforestation, overexploitation, promotion of faster-growing tree species such as Norway spruce (Picea abies), clear-cut forestry, air pollution, and damage by game birds and animals (Wolf, 2003; Cvrčková, Máchová and Malá, 2015). It may also have suffered from lack of adaptability due to insufficient genetic variation in some marginal fragmented populations, especially in the north of its range (Wolf, 2003). This is made worse by gene flow from other commercial fir species, which may have resulted in native genotypes losing local adaptations, which in turn affected their long-term survival (Wolf, 2003).
Temperature increases, higher evapotranspiration, and lower precipitation resulting from climate change may change the habitat of silver fir and increase its susceptibility to pests and diseases (Wolf, 2003). Some genetic conservation units at low elevations or at the southern margins of distribution areas are currently experiencing high levels of dieback (Fady, Lefèvre and Scotti-Saintagne, 2023). While the species has been declining in marginal populations, it may be expanding towards higher elevations across its range (Major et al., 2021).
Silver fir is more drought tolerant than other commercial species such as Norway spruce so could be a valuable candidate for diversification of forest ecosystems in the context of future climate change (Major et al., 2021; Fady, Lefèvre and Scotti-Saintagne, 2023). However, it is not considered a high priority in tree breeding as the tree is mostly naturally regenerated in silvicultural stands (Wolf, 2003). Natural regeneration should also have preserved the species’ original genetic structure and diversity, but where populations have declined the species’ genetic variation has been reduced and survival of these populations is not guaranteed (Wolf, 2003).
Management practices to conserve the genetic diversity of silver fir could include control of game species and avoidance of planting exotic fir species close to silver fir stands (Wolf, 2003). However, in situ conservation should be a priority, with many different populations from various distribution areas with locally common alleles being selected systematically for gene conservation purposes (Wolf, 2003; Fady, Lefèvre and Scotti-Saintagne, 2023). Ex situ gene conservation using seed orchards can overcome the isolation of individuals and promote outcrossing for small, isolated populations but sampling should be done exclusively in indigenous populations, randomly in respect to the phenotype but representatively in respect to ecological variation (Wolf, 2003). Populations with depleted gene pools or degraded ecological conditions could be saved by using interspecific mating to create new adapted genotypes in specific cases (Wolf, 2003).
Special conservation care should be given to high diversity populations such as those in the Apennines (Belletti et al., 2017). Southern populations have higher growth rates, making them valuable for restoration and plantations outside of their current distribution, but their adaptive potential to new climates is not known (Fady, Lefèvre and Scotti-Saintagne, 2023). In areas experiencing diebacks, natural regeneration may result in better-adapted and more-resilient genotypes, so while managers may switch to supposedly climate-adapted species they should facilitate natural regeneration and collect seeds for ex situ storage and conservation (Fady, Lefèvre and Scotti-Saintagne, 2023).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Genetic Characterisation of Abies alba and its GCUs
Availability of FRM
FOREMATIS
Abies alba - Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for silver fir
Publication Year: 2003Since silver fir stands have been regenerated mainly naturally for a long period, there is reason to assume that they have preserved their original genetic structure and diversity, although the genetic composition of silver populations may have been modified by adaptation and/or drift processes. It is evident that in several parts of the distribution area genetic variation has been reduced due to the mentioned decline of silver fir. This reduction of population sizes may have reached a stage where the future survival of locally remnant populations is no longer guaranteed.
To preserve the population-specific genetic structures of silver fir, i.e. locally common alleles and the area-specific allele frequency distribution, many different populations from various distribution areas should be selected systematically for gene conservation purposes. The most effective way to conserve larger occurrences of silver fir and their genetic resources is through in situ conservation of stands and populations as well as their natural regeneration using long-term and small-scale regeneration methods. Additional activities are the promotion of silver fir individuals by tending and thinning, and the strict control of game. If planting of silver fir is required, culling for height of plants in the nursery should be avoided since genetic effects of this procedure cannot be excluded. In case of occurrences with a low number of individuals, enrichment planting in addition to the natural regeneration is recommended with plants from other, larger occurrences of the same region to avoid a higher frequency of half-sib offsprings and subsequent inbreeding in the next regeneration stage.
To avoid risks of interspecific geneflow, reforestation using exotic Abies species in the vicinity of silver fir stands should be strictly monitored. Only in marginal areas, with highly depleted genepools and where ecological conditions are very degraded could interspecific mating help to create new adapted genotypes. In all other cases, it should be avoided.
For small populations with a decreased number of individuals, and in addition to in situ conservation measures, the establishment of ex situ gene conservation seed orchards is highly recommended in order to overcome the isolation of individuals and to promote outcrossing. The sampling of single trees does not affect the genetic structure if a sufficient number of individuals is considered. However, sampling should be done exclusively in indigenous populations, randomly in respect to the phenotype but representatively in respect to ecological variation. Wherever possible, the genotype of the individuals sampled should be assessed and considered, e.g. using gene markers to avoid loss of genetic variation and a reduced diversity.
Complementary to in situ and ex situ conservation measures, seeds of silver fir can be stored in genebanks for about 3 to 5 years provided that outcrossing has taken place among a minimum number of 20 individuals. To overcome the negative effects of isolation in silver fir relicts in the short term, the collection and storage of pollen in combination with artificial pollination of mature trees could be an efficient but expensive approach.
In the European Community, silver fir is under the EU Directive on the marketing of forest reproductive material. For reforestation or re-introduction of silver fir, only forest reproductive materials are to be used according to the regulations and must be suitable for the site conditions in question. In nations not under EU law, the procurement of forest reproductive material should follow the principles of approval, identification and control. In every case, however, recommendations should be developed for the proper use of forest reproductive material.
Since silver fir stands have been regenerated mainly naturally for a long period, there is reason to assume that they have preserved their original genetic structure and diversity, although the genetic composition of silver populations may have been modified by adaptation and/or drift processes. It is evident that in several parts of the distribution area genetic variation has been reduced due...
Conifers Network: Report of the fourth meeting
Conifers Network: Report of the first meeting
Conifers Network: Report of the second and third meeting
Contacts of experts
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Further reading
Heer, K., Behringer, D., Piermattei, A., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Fady, B., Jehl, H., Liepelt, S., Lorch, S., Piotti, A. and Vendramin, G.G. 2018. Linking dendroecology and association genetics in natural populations: Stress responses archived in tree rings associate with SNP genotypes in silver fir (Abies alba Mill.). Molecular Ecology, 27(6): 1428–1438.
Leonarduzzi, C., Piotti, A., Spanu, I. and Vendramin, G.G. 2016. Effective gene flow in a historically fragmented area at the southern edge of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) distribution. Tree Genetics & Genomes, 12: 95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11295-016-1053-4
Sancho Knapik, D., Peguero Pina, J.J., Cremer, E., Camarero Martínez, J.J., Fernández Cancio, A., Ibarra, N., Konnert, M. and Gil Pelegrín, E. 2014. Genetic and environmental characterization of Abies alba Mill. populations at its western rear edge. Pirineos, 169: e007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/Pirineos.2014.169007
References
Belletti, P., Ferrazzini, D., Ducci, F., De Rogatis, A. and Mucciarelli, M. 2017. Genetic diversity of Italian populations of Abies alba. Dendrobiology, 77: 147–159.
Cvrčková, H., Máchová, P. and Malá, J. 2015. Use of nuclear microsatellite loci for evaluating genetic diversity among selected populations of Abies alba Mill. in the Czech Republic. Forests, 9(2): 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9020092
Fady, B., Lefèvre, F. and Scotti-Saintagne, C. 2023. Conservation of forest genetic resources and strategies for in situ preservation: example of the European silver fir Abies alba. In: Gaisberger, H., Jalonen, R., Vinceti, B., Elias, M., Thomas, E., DeRidder, B., Besacier, C., et al. Delivering tree genetic resources in forest and landscape restoration – A guide to ensuring local and global impact, pp. 47–52. Forestry Working Paper, No. 40. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc8955en
Major, E.I., Höhn, M., Avanzi, C., Fady, B., Heer, K., Opgenoorth, L., Piotti, A., Popescu, F., Postolache, D., Vendramin, G.G. and Csilléry, K. 2021. Fine‐scale spatial genetic structure across the species range reflects recent colonization of high elevation habitats in silver fir (Abies alba Mill.). Molecular Ecology, 30(20): 5247–5265.
Wolf, H. 2003. EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for silver fir (Abies alba). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. 6 pages.
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