To learn more about the map elements, please download the "Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees"
This distribution map has been developed by the European Commission Joint Research Centre (partly based on the EUFORGEN map) and released under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0)
Caudullo, G., Welk, E., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., 2017. Chorological maps for the main European woody species. Data in Brief 12, 662-666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.05.007
The following experts have contributed to the development of the EUFORGEN distribution maps:
Fazia Krouchi (Algeria), Hasmik Ghalachyan (Armenia), Thomas Geburek (Austria), Berthold Heinze (Austria), Rudi Litschauer (Austria), Rudolf Litschauer (Austria), Michael Mengl (Austria), Ferdinand Müller (Austria), Franz Starlinger (Austria), Valida Ali-zade (Azerbaijan), Vahid Djalal Hajiyev (Azerbaijan), Karen Cox (Belgium), Bart De Cuyper (Belgium), Olivier Desteucq (Belgium), Patrick Mertens (Belgium), Jos Van Slycken (Belgium), An Vanden Broeck (Belgium), Kristine Vander Mijnsbrugge (Belgium), Dalibor Ballian (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Alexander H. Alexandrov (Bulgaria), Alexander Delkov (Bulgaria), Ivanova Denitsa Pandeva (Bulgaria), Peter Zhelev Stoyanov (Bulgaria), Joso Gracan (Croatia), Marilena Idzojtic (Croatia), Mladen Ivankovic (Croatia), Željka Ivanović (Croatia), Davorin Kajba (Croatia), Hrvoje Marjanovic (Croatia), Sanja Peric (Croatia), Andreas Christou (Cyprus), Xenophon Hadjikyriacou (Cyprus), Václav Buriánek (Czech Republic), Jan Chládek (Czech Republic), Josef Frýdl (Czech Republic), Petr Novotný (Czech Republic), Martin Slovacek (Czech Republic), Zdenek Špišek (Czech Republic), Karel Vancura (Czech Republic), Ulrik Bräuner (Denmark), Bjerne Ditlevsen (Denmark), Jon Kehlet Hansen (Denmark), Jan Svejgaard Jensen (Denmark), Kalev Jðgiste (Estonia), Tiit Maaten (Estonia), Raul Pihu (Estonia), Ülo Tamm (Estonia), Arvo Tullus (Estonia), Aivo Vares (Estonia), Teijo Nikkanen (Finland), Sanna Paanukoski (Finland), Mari Rusanen (Finland), Pekka Vakkari (Finland), Leena Yrjänä (Finland), Daniel Cambon (France), Eric Collin (France), Alexis Ducousso (France), Bruno Fady (France), François Lefèvre (France), Brigitte Musch (France), Sylvie Oddou-Muratorio (France), Luc E. Pâques (France), Julien Saudubray (France), Marc Villar (France), Vlatko Andonovski (FYR Macedonia), Dragi Pop-Stojanov (FYR Macedonia), Merab Machavariani (Georgia), Irina Tvauri (Georgia), Alexander Urushadze (Georgia), Bernd Degen (Germany), Jochen Kleinschmit (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Armin König (Germany), Volker Schneck (Germany), Richard Stephan (Germany), H. H. Kausch-Blecken Von Schmeling (Germany), Georg von Wühlisch (Germany), Iris Wagner (Germany), Heino Wolf (Germany), Paraskevi Alizoti (Greece), Filippos Aravanopoulos (Greece), Andreas Drouzas (Greece), Despina Paitaridou (Greece), Aristotelis C. Papageorgiou (Greece), Kostas Thanos (Greece), Sándor Bordács (Hungary), Csaba Mátyás (Hungary), László Nagy (Hungary), Thröstur Eysteinsson (Iceland), Adalsteinn Sigurgeirsson (Iceland), Halldór Sverrisson (Iceland), John Fennessy (Ireland), Ellen O'Connor (Ireland), Fulvio Ducci (Italy), Silvia Fineschi (Italy), Bartolomeo Schirone (Italy), Marco Cosimo Simeone (Italy), Giovanni Giuseppe Vendramin (Italy), Lorenzo Vietto (Italy), Janis Birgelis (Latvia), Virgilijus Baliuckas (Lithuania), Kestutis Cesnavicius (Lithuania), Darius Danusevicius (Lithuania), Valmantas Kundrotas (Lithuania), Alfas Pliûra (Lithuania), Darius Raudonius (Lithuania), Robert du Fays (Luxembourg), Myriam Heuertz (Luxembourg), Claude Parini (Luxembourg), Fred Trossen (Luxembourg), Frank Wolter (Luxembourg), Joseph Buhagiar (Malta), Eman Calleja (Malta), Ion Palancean (Moldova), Dragos Postolache (Moldova), Gheorghe Postolache (Moldova), Hassan Sbay (Morocco), Tor Myking (Norway), Tore Skrøppa (Norway), Anna Gugala (Poland), Jan Kowalczyk (Poland), Czeslaw Koziol (Poland), Jan Matras (Poland), Zbigniew Sobierajski (Poland), Maria Helena Almeida (Portugal), Filipe Costa e Silva (Portugal), Luís Reis (Portugal), Maria Carolina Varela (Portugal), Ioan Blada (Romania), Alexandru-Lucian Curtu (Romania), Lucian Dinca (Romania), Georgeta Mihai (Romania), Mihai Olaru (Romania), Gheorghe Parnuta (Romania), Natalia Demidova (Russian Federation), Mikhail V. Pridnya (Russian Federation), Andrey Prokazin (Russian Federation), Srdjan Bojovic (Serbia) , Vasilije Isajev (Serbia), Saša Orlovic (Serbia), Rudolf Bruchánik (Slovakia), Roman Longauer (Slovakia), Ladislav Paule (Slovakia), Gregor Bozič (Slovenia), Robert Brus (Slovenia), Katarina Celič (Slovenia), Hojka Kraigher (Slovenia), Andrej Verlič (Slovenia), Marjana Westergren (Slovenia), Ricardo Alía (Spain), Josefa Fernández-López (Spain), Luis Gil Sanchez (Spain), Pablo Gonzalez Goicoechea (Spain), Santiago C. González-Martínez (Spain), Sonia Martin Albertos (Spain), Eduardo Notivol Paino (Spain), María Arantxa Prada (Spain), Alvaro Soto de Viana (Spain), Lennart Ackzell (Sweden), Jonas Bergquist (Sweden), Sanna Black-Samuelsson (Sweden), Jonas Cedergren (Sweden), Gösta Eriksson (Sweden), Markus Bolliger (Switzerland), Felix Gugerli (Switzerland), Rolf Holderegger (Switzerland), Peter Rotach (Switzerland), Marcus Ulber (Switzerland), Sven M.G. de Vries (The Netherlands), Khouja Mohamed Larbi (Tunisia), Murat Alan (Turkey), Gaye Kandemir (Turkey), Gursel Karagöz (Turkey), Zeki Kaya (Turkey), Hasan Özer (Turkey), Hacer Semerci (Turkey), Ferit Toplu (Turkey), Mykola M. Vedmid (Ukraine), Roman T. Volosyanchuk (Ukraine), Stuart A'Hara (United Kingdom), Joan Cottrell (United Kingdom), Colin Edwards (United Kingdom), Michael Frankis (United Kingdom), Jason Hubert (United Kingdom), Karen Russell (United Kingdom), C.J.A. Samuel (United Kingdom).
Status of Malus sylvestris conservation in Europe
Genetic diversity in European wild apple is very high within and between populations, as expected from a species with large geographical ranges, outcrossing breeding systems, and seed dispersal by animals (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003; Wagner et al., 2014). Even in pure stands, European wild apple has high genetic diversity compared with other species, and its genetic diversity is comparable to domesticated apple (Wagner et al., 2014; Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003). Some individual traits such as seed size show high variation within European wild apple (Reim, Höltken, and Höfer, 2013).
Some genetic clustering and geographic structuring of genetic diversity is present in the species, with populations in similar ecological conditions such as flood plains being more genetically similar (Coart et al., 2003; Wagner et al., 2014). However, in large parts of the tree species’ range no genetic structuring is present (Wagner et al., 2014).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Species-specific alleles have been identified in wild apples, suggesting it is not one continuous species (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003). Using morphological characteristics to identify apple species and cultivars is difficult and unsuitable due to its high differentiation (Reim, Höltken, and Höfer, 2013).
Introgression between cultivated varieties and wild species does occur but is rare and has hardly occurred since the domestication of the apple (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003). This could be because gene flow between wild and cultivated gene pools is almost absent (Coart et al., 2003). Differences in flowering times between European wild apples and cultivated varieties limits hybridization (Wagner et al., 2014). As a result, wild populations have not lost their genetic diversity through hybridization with cultivated genotypes despite being in proximity across their range (Wagner et al., 2014).
Wild apple populations in Germany and Belgium are highly differentiated from cultivars, and wild and cultivated apple trees are genetically distinct across their range (Coart et al., 2003; Wagner et al., 2014). European wild apple is genetically closer to old, domesticated apple cultivars than more recent varieties (Wagner et al., 2014).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
The genetic resources of European wild apple are seriously endangered due to its rare occurrence and narrow genetic base, which make genetic drift more prominent, its low natural regeneration which is vulnerable to grazing, and the species’ low competitive ability (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003; Wagner et al., 2014). Even though it is rare, hybridization with cultivated forms could reduce the fitness of wild populations, threatening the species (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003; Reim, Höltken, and Höfer, 2013; Wagner et al., 2014). Uncontrolled seed transfer also threatens the genetic diversity of European wild apples as it is not included under national legislation for forest reproductive material, meaning seed of unknown origin is used for afforestation purposes (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003). Forest clearing and intensive agriculture have reduced the species’ distribution and its genetic diversity (Reim, Höltken, and Höfer, 2013).
The clear differentiation of gene pools between European wild apples and cultivated varieties justifies treating the European wild apples as a distinct genetic resource with dedicated conservation measures (Wagner et al., 2014). In situ conservation for European wild apple is limited because it occurs as single trees or in small groups (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003). Therefore, the establishment of ex situ conservation seed orchards is the most suitable and efficient conservation measure to undertake (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003). Natural regeneration should be supplemented by planting of seedlings originating from seed orchards, extending the genetic base (Stephan, Wagner, and Kleinschmit, 2003).
The bibliographic review was conducted by James Chaplin of the EUFORGEN Secretariat in August 2024.
Genetic Characterisation of Malus sylvestris and its GCUs
Availability of FRM
FOREMATIS
Malus sylvestris and Pyrus pyraster - Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for wild apple and pear
Publication Year: 2003The natural situation of these rare fruit tree species and their occurrence as single individuals or in small groups, restricts the possibilities for implementing in situ conservation strategies. For both species, the establishment of ex situ conservation seed orchards seems to be the most suitable and efficient conservation measure to undertake.
Natural regeneration should be supplemented by planting of seedlings originating from seed orchards. This method extends the genetic base of regeneration, which is important for future adaptability.
Grafting is not difficult and seed orchards can be relatively easily established. A minimum of 50 clones per seed orchard and region should be selected. New breeding populations can be restored when individual specimens, scattered over a large, but ecologically similar area, are collected and planted together in the seed orchard.
Noble Hardwood Network: Report on the fourth and fifth meeting
Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the second meeting
Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the first meeting
Contacts of experts
NA
Further reading
Larsen, A.S., Asmussen, C.B., Coart, E., Olrik, D.C., and Kjær, E.D. 2006. Hybridization and genetic variation in Danish populations of European crab apple (Malus sylvestris). Tree Genetics & Genomes, 2: 86–97.
Schnitzler, A., Arnold, C., Cornille, A., Bachmann, O., and Schnitzler, C. 2014. Wild European apple (Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.) population dynamics: insight from genetics and ecology in the Rhine valley. Priorities for a future conservation programme. PLoS ONE, 9(5): e96596. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096596
References
Coart, E., Vekemans, X., Smulders, M.J., Wagner, I., Van Huylenbroeck, J., Van Bockstaele, E., and Roldán‐Ruiz, I. 2003. Genetic variation in the endangered wild apple (Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.) in Belgium as revealed by amplified fragment length polymorphism and microsatellite markers. Molecular Ecology, 12(4): 845–857.
Reim, S., Höltken, A., and Höfer, M., 2013. Diversity of the European indigenous wild apple (Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.) in the East Ore Mountains (Osterzgebirge), Germany: II. Genetic characterization. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 60: 879–892.
Stephan B.R., Wagner, I., and Kleinschmit, J. 2003. EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for wild apple and pear (Malus sylvestris and Pyrus pyraster). Rome, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. 6 pp.
Wagner, I., Maurer, W.D., Lemmen, P., Schmitt, H.P., Wagner, M., Binder, M., and Patzak, P. 2014. Hybridization and genetic diversity in wild apple (Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.) from various regions in Germany and from Luxembourg. Silvae Genetica, 63(1–6): 81–93.
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